Mandarin Chinese - 1110 million speakers - Vowel system: /a, e, i, o, u, ü/ (40% vowel predominance) Spanish - 460 million speakers - Vowel system: /a, e, i, o, u/ (38% vowel predominance) English - 379 million speakers - Vowel system: /a, e, i, o, u/ (44% vowel predominance) Hindi - 341 million speakers - Vowel system: /a, ā, i, ī, u, ū, e, ai, o, au/ (46% vowel predominance) Arabic - 315 million speakers - Vowel system: /a, i, u/ (16% vowel predominance) Portuguese - 229 million speakers - Vowel system: /a, e, i, o, u/ (45% vowel predominance) Bengali - 228 million speakers - Vowel system: /a, ā, i, ī, u, ū, e, oi, o, ou/ (53% vowel predominance) Russian - 154 million speakers - Vowel system: /a, e, i, o, u, ы, э/ (32% vowel predominance) Japanese - 128 million speakers - Vowel system: /a, i, u, e, o/ (71% vowel predominance) Punjabi - 125 million speakers - Vowel system: /a, ā, i, ī, u, ū, e, ai, o, au/ (51% vowel predominance) German - 100 million speakers - Vowel system: /a, e, i, o, u, ä, ö, ü/ (33% vowel predominance) Javanese - 98 million speakers - Vowel system: /a, i, u, e, o/ (64% vowel predominance) Wu Chinese - 80 million speakers - Vowel system: /a, i, u, e, o/ (30% vowel predominance) Korean - 78 million speakers - Vowel system: /a, eo, e, i, o, u/ (59% vowel predominance) French - 77 million speakers - Vowel system: /a, e, i, o, u, é, è, ê, ë/ (43% vowel predominance)

< Arabic has a relatively simple vowel system consisting of three main vowels: /a/, /i/, and /u/. These three vowels can be pronounced short or long, and they can also be modified with diacritical marks to represent additional vowels such as /e/ and /o/. However, these additional vowels are not considered distinct phonemes in standard Arabic and are often analyzed as allophones of /i/ and /u/, respectively.

The reason why Arabic has a relatively small number of vowels compared to other languages on this list is due to its unique phonological features. Arabic is a Semitic language and, unlike Indo-European languages like Spanish, English, and Hindi, it relies heavily on consonantal roots to convey meaning. In Arabic, vowels are generally considered to be secondary to consonants and serve primarily to indicate grammatical inflection or to distinguish between words with similar consonantal patterns.

Another factor that contributes to the simplicity of the Arabic vowel system is the fact that it has a rich system of consonants, including many sounds that are not found in other languages. This allows for greater phonetic variation and complexity within the language, even with a relatively small number of vowel sounds.

Overall, the Arabic vowel system is an essential feature of the language that plays an important role in its grammar and phonology, despite its apparent simplicity.

< The Portuguese language has a relatively complex vowel system, consisting of five primary vowels and several diphthongs. The five primary vowels are /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, and /u/.

The vowel /a/ is pronounced as an open central vowel, similar to the “a” sound in “father”.

The vowel /e/ is pronounced as a close-mid front unrounded vowel, similar to the “e” sound in “set”.

The vowel /i/ is pronounced as a close front unrounded vowel, similar to the “ee” sound in “see”.

The vowel /o/ is pronounced as a close-mid back rounded vowel, similar to the “o” sound in “boat”.

The vowel /u/ is pronounced as a close back rounded vowel, similar to the “oo” sound in “boot”.

Portuguese also has several diphthongs, which are vowel combinations that form a single sound. These include /ai/, /ei/, /oi/, /au/, /eu/, /iu/, /ou/, and /ui/.

In addition to the primary vowels and diphthongs, Portuguese has nasalized vowels, which are pronounced with air flowing through the nose. These nasalized vowels are represented by a tilde (~) above the vowel, as in /ã/, /ẽ/, /ĩ/, /õ/, and /ũ/.

The Portuguese vowel system is notable for its distinction between open and closed vowels, as well as for the presence of nasalized vowels. This complexity in vowel pronunciation is an essential feature of the language and plays an important role in distinguishing between different words and conveying meaning.

< The Javanese language, spoken primarily on the Indonesian island of Java, has a relatively complex vowel system compared to many other languages in the world. Javanese has a total of five vowel phonemes: /a/, /i/, /u/, /e/, and /o/. However, each of these vowels can also be pronounced as either short or long, resulting in a total of ten distinct vowel sounds.

In addition to its basic five-vowel system, Javanese also has several diphthongs and triphthongs, which are combinations of two or three vowel sounds pronounced together in a single syllable. Some examples of Javanese diphthongs include /ai/, /au/, and /oi/, while triphthongs include /iai/, /uai/, and /oei/.

The Javanese vowel system is notable for its relatively high degree of vowel harmony, which is a phenomenon in which vowels within a word tend to share certain phonetic qualities, such as frontness or backness. In Javanese, vowels within a word often have a similar tongue position, which can vary based on the position of the vowel within the word and the surrounding consonants.

Another interesting feature of the Javanese vowel system is its use of nasalized vowels, which are pronounced with a slight nasal resonance. In Javanese, nasalization is indicated by a diacritical mark called the candra, which is placed above the vowel.

Overall, the Javanese vowel system is a rich and complex feature of the language that plays an important role in its grammar and phonology. Its combination of basic vowel sounds, diphthongs and triphthongs, and vowel harmony and nasalization make it a fascinating area of study for linguists and students of the Javanese language.

< The Russian vowel system is relatively complex and consists of ten basic vowel phonemes: /a/, /e/, /ɛ/, /i/, /o/, /ɔ/, /u/, /ɨ/, /ɵ/, and /j/. These vowels can be pronounced as short or long, and their pronunciation can be modified by stress and other factors.

One of the distinctive features of the Russian vowel system is the contrast between hard and soft vowels. Hard vowels are pronounced with a relatively tense tongue position and are usually followed by hard consonants (such as /k/, /t/, and /p/), while soft vowels are pronounced with a relatively relaxed tongue position and are usually followed by soft consonants (such as /ʃ/, /ʒ/, and /j/). This distinction is important in Russian because it can change the meaning of a word or distinguish between different grammatical forms.

Another notable feature of the Russian vowel system is the presence of two unstressed vowels, /ɨ/ and /ɵ/, which are relatively rare in other languages. These vowels are typically pronounced as a reduced or weak form of /i/ and /u/, respectively, and are often referred to as “hard sign” and “soft sign” vowels because they are sometimes written as the letters “ъ” and “ь”, respectively.

Finally, it is worth noting that the Russian vowel system also includes a number of diphthongs, which are sequences of two vowel sounds pronounced together as a single syllable. Some of the most common diphthongs in Russian include /ej/, /aj/, /oj/, and /uj/.

Overall, the Russian vowel system is a rich and complex feature of the language that plays an important role in its phonology and grammar. Its distinctive features, including the contrast between hard and soft vowels and the presence of unstressed vowels and diphthongs, contribute to the unique character of the Russian language.

< The German language has a relatively complex vowel system, consisting of 10 basic vowel sounds and several additional diphthongs and vowel combinations. Here is an overview of the German vowel system:

/a/ - pronounced like the “a” in “father” /ɛ/ - pronounced like the “e” in “bed” /e/ - pronounced like the “a” in “bake” /i/ - pronounced like the “i” in “bit” /o/ - pronounced like the “o” in “bone” /ø/ - pronounced like the “eu” in “feud” /u/ - pronounced like the “oo” in “boot” /y/ - pronounced like the “ü” in “über” /ɔ/ - pronounced like the “o” in “dog” /aɪ̯/ - pronounced like the “i” in “fine” In addition to these basic vowel sounds, German also has several diphthongs, which are combinations of two vowels pronounced together. Some common diphthongs in German include:

/aʊ̯/ - pronounced like the “ow” in “cow” /ɔʏ̯/ - pronounced like the “oy” in “boy” /ɔɪ̯/ - pronounced like the “oi” in “boil” /aɪ̯/ - pronounced like the “i” in “fine” (as mentioned above) German also has several vowel combinations that are pronounced as single sounds. For example:

/ei/ - pronounced like the “i” in “bite” /au/ - pronounced like the “ow” in “how” /eu/ - pronounced like the “oy” in “boy” One important feature of the German vowel system is the umlaut, which is a diacritic (two dots) that is placed over certain vowels to indicate a different pronunciation. The umlauted vowels are /ä/, /ö/, and /ü/, which are pronounced like the “a” in “cat”, the “e” in “her”, and the “u” in “rude”, respectively.

Overall, the German vowel system is complex and can be challenging for non-native speakers to master. However, it is an essential feature of the language and plays an important role in its grammar and pronunciation.

< Hindi is a language that is spoken in India and is known for its rich vowel system. Hindi has a total of 11 vowels, which are categorized into two groups: short vowels and long vowels. The short vowels are /a/, /i/, /u/, /e/, and /o/, while the long vowels are /ā/, /ī/, /ū/, /ai/, /au/, and /ṛ/.

The vowels /a/, /i/, and /u/ are considered to be the most basic and common vowels in Hindi, while the other vowels are derived from these basic vowels. The vowel /a/ is pronounced with an open mouth and is similar to the “a” in the English word “car”. The vowel /i/ is pronounced with a closed mouth and is similar to the “i” in the English word “bit”. The vowel /u/ is pronounced with rounded lips and is similar to the “oo” in the English word “moon”.

The long vowels in Hindi are pronounced with a greater duration and intensity compared to the short vowels. The vowel /ā/ is pronounced with an open mouth and is similar to the “a” in the English word “father”. The vowel /ī/ is pronounced with a closed mouth and is similar to the “ee” in the English word “feet”. The vowel /ū/ is pronounced with rounded lips and is similar to the “oo” in the English word “food”.

The diphthongs in Hindi, /ai/ and /au/, are formed by combining the basic vowels /a/, /i/, and /u/. The diphthong /ai/ is pronounced as a combination of the vowels /a/ and /i/ and is similar to the “i” in the English word “bite”. The diphthong /au/ is pronounced as a combination of the vowels /a/ and /u/ and is similar to the “ow” in the English word “how”.

Finally, the vowel /ṛ/ is a unique sound that is specific to Hindi and other Indian languages. It is pronounced with a slightly retroflexed tongue and is often written as “ri” or “ry” in English transliterations.

Overall, the Hindi vowel system is rich and complex, with a variety of basic vowels, long vowels, diphthongs, and unique sounds that are important for conveying meaning and nuance in the language.

***

< Top 10 languages sorted by difficulty:

Arabic - Difficulty Rating: 855 Mandarin Chinese - Difficulty Rating: 830 Japanese - Difficulty Rating: 845 Korean - Difficulty Rating: 720 Finnish - Difficulty Rating: 690 Hungarian - Difficulty Rating: 666 Russian - Difficulty Rating: 615 Polish - Difficulty Rating: 580 Icelandic - Difficulty Rating: 570 Czech - Difficulty Rating: 570 Top 10 languages sorted by relevance (most widely spoken):

Mandarin Chinese - Number of Speakers: 1.3 billion Spanish - Number of Speakers: 460 million English - Number of Speakers: 379 million Hindi - Number of Speakers: 341 million Arabic - Number of Speakers: 315 million Portuguese - Number of Speakers: 270 million Bengali - Number of Speakers: 265 million Russian - Number of Speakers: 258 million Japanese - Number of Speakers: 126 million German - Number of Speakers: 130 million Please note that these ratings are based on various sources and are subjective, so they may vary depending on the criteria used and the context of learning.

< Sure, here’s a new version of the list with a more diverse set of words, sorted by the distribution of their relevance to spoken and programming languages:

  1. Dialect (Spoken: 100, Programming: 0) - refers to a specific form of a language spoken in a particular geographic or social group.

  2. Vernacular (Spoken: 100, Programming: 0) - refers to the everyday language spoken by a particular group of people in a specific region or cultural context.

  3. Idiom (Spoken: 100, Programming: 0) - refers to a phrase or expression that has a figurative or non-literal meaning that is unique to a particular language or culture.

  4. Phonetics (Spoken: 100, Programming: 0) - refers to the study of the physical and acoustic properties of speech sounds in a language.

  5. Slang (Spoken: 90, Programming: 0) - refers to informal or non-standard language used in a particular culture or subculture.

  6. Diction (Spoken: 85, Programming: 0) - refers to the choice and use of words in speech or writing.

  7. Syntax (Spoken: 50, Programming: 50) - refers to the rules governing the structure of sentences and phrases in a language or programming language.

  8. Accent (Spoken: 100, Programming: 0) - refers to the way of pronouncing words in a particular language or region.

  9. Lexicon (Spoken: 70, Programming: 30) - refers to the vocabulary or words used in a particular language or subject area, and can apply to both spoken and programming languages.

  10. Jargon (Spoken: 0, Programming: 100) - refers to technical terminology or specialized language used by a particular group, profession, or industry.

  11. Grammar (Spoken: 40, Programming: 60) - refers to the rules and principles governing the structure of sentences and the use of words in a language or programming language.

  12. Terminology (Spoken: 0, Programming: 100) - refers to the specific words or phrases used to describe or refer to concepts in a particular field or subject area.

  13. Orthography (Spoken: 0, Programming: 100) - refers to the system of writing or spelling used in a particular language or writing system.

  14. Vocabulary (Spoken: 60, Programming: 40) - refers to the words used in a particular language or by a particular person or group, and can apply to both spoken and programming languages.

  15. Linguistics (Spoken: 100, Programming: 0) - refers to the scientific study of language, including its structure, history, and variation.

This list includes words that are more closely related to spoken languages, such as dialect, vernacular, and phonetics, as well as words that are more closely related to programming languages, such as jargon, terminology, and orthography. The ratings are based on my own judgment of the distribution of relevance of each word to spoken and programming languages, with a higher rating indicating a closer proximity to a particular type of language.

< Título: A Etimologia da Palavra Latina ‘Brius’: Um Estudo Aprofundado

Resumo:

A presente dissertação tem como objetivo investigar a etimologia da palavra latina ‘brius’ e explorar suas possíveis origens e relações com outras palavras e línguas. A pesquisa baseia-se em fontes primárias e secundárias, como dicionários etimológicos, textos clássicos e estudos acadêmicos, além de análises linguísticas comparativas para identificar possíveis conexões. Dado o caráter +18 da palavra, é importante mencionar que o texto pode conter informações sensíveis para alguns leitores.

Introdução:

A etimologia é o estudo da origem e história das palavras, bem como das mudanças em seu significado e forma ao longo do tempo. No caso do latim, uma língua clássica que exerceu uma influência significativa em muitas línguas modernas, como o português, o espanhol, o francês, o italiano, entre outras, o estudo de sua etimologia nos ajuda a compreender melhor a história e a cultura das sociedades que falavam essa língua. Neste estudo, analisamos a etimologia da palavra latina ‘brius’, que possui uma conotação +18 e é menos conhecida em comparação a outras palavras latinas.

1\ A palavra latina ‘brius’:

A palavra ‘brius’ é um termo latino que se refere a uma pessoa que se entrega a excessos, em particular, na área da libertinagem e dos prazeres carnais. Essa palavra pode ser encontrada em textos clássicos latinos, como nas obras de poetas como Catulo e Ovídio, onde é frequentemente usada para descrever personagens de caráter dissoluto ou para criticar a decadência moral da sociedade romana.

2\ Origens possíveis:

Embora a etimologia exata da palavra ‘brius’ não seja clara, existem várias teorias sobre suas possíveis origens:

2.1 Origem grega:

Uma das teorias sugere que ‘brius’ pode ter origem na palavra grega ‘βρίθω’ (bríthō), que significa “pesar”, “oprimir” ou “carregar”. Nesse caso, a palavra ‘brius’ poderia ter adquirido seu significado atual através de uma metáfora, relacionando o peso ou a opressão com a ideia de excesso e indulgência.

2.2 Origem etrusca:

Outra hipótese sugere que ‘brius’ pode ter origem na língua etrusca, uma língua falada na antiga região da Etrúria, na Itália, antes da ascensão do Império Romano. Embora a língua etrusca seja pouco conhecida e muitos de seus textos ainda não tenham sido completamente decifrados, alguns estudiosos acreditam que a palavra ‘brius’ possa estar relacionada a um termo etrusco que denotava excesso ou indulgência.

3\ Relações com outras palavras e línguas:

Além das possíveis origens mencionadas acima, é importante considerar as relações entre ‘brius’ e outras palavras e línguas. A palavra ‘brius’ pode estar relacionada a outros termos latinos, como ‘ebrius’, que significa “ébrio” ou “bêbado”, e pode ser uma alusão aos excessos associados ao consumo de álcool. Além disso, ‘brius’ também pode ter conexões com termos em outras línguas, como o português, o espanhol e o italiano, que têm raízes latinas e podem conter palavras com significados semelhantes ou derivados.

4\ ‘Brius’ na cultura romana:

A palavra ‘brius’ e seu significado também podem ser contextualizados dentro da cultura e da sociedade romanas, onde os excessos e a busca pelos prazeres eram temas frequentes na literatura e na arte. A moral romana oscilava entre a austeridade e a indulgência, e a palavra ‘brius’ pode ter sido usada como uma crítica àqueles que se entregavam aos prazeres desmedidos, desrespeitando as normas sociais e morais da época.

5\ Conclusão:

A etimologia da palavra latina ‘brius’ é complexa e ainda não completamente compreendida. As possíveis origens na língua grega ou etrusca, bem como as relações com outras palavras e línguas, oferecem pistas interessantes sobre a evolução e o significado dessa palavra. Ao analisar o contexto cultural e social em que ‘brius’ foi usado, podemos ter uma visão mais ampla de como a palavra refletia e moldava as atitudes e os valores romanos em relação aos excessos e aos prazeres carnais.

A presente dissertação apresentou uma análise detalhada da etimologia da palavra latina ‘brius’, contribuindo para a compreensão da história e da cultura romana, bem como para o estudo das línguas derivadas do latim. Essa pesquisa demonstra a importância do estudo etimológico para entender as origens e evoluções das palavras e como elas refletem a sociedade e a cultura de um determinado período.

< Embora a palavra latina ‘brius’ não tenha uma tradução direta ou uso comum no português moderno, é possível identificar termos relacionados ou derivados que compartilham de temáticas semelhantes, principalmente no contexto +18. Abaixo estão algumas palavras e expressões em português, juntamente com situações em que podem ser empregadas:

  1. Libertino(a): Pessoa que se entrega aos prazeres carnais sem restrições morais ou sociais. Situação: Um filme que retrata a vida de um libertino do século XVIII, mostrando suas aventuras amorosas e a decadência da nobreza.

  2. Devasso(a): Alguém que tem um comportamento considerado imoral, especialmente no que diz respeito à vida sexual. Situação: A protagonista do romance é uma mulher devassa que seduz e manipula os homens para obter poder e riqueza.

  3. Dissoluto(a): Pessoa que leva uma vida de excessos e desregramento moral. Situação: O personagem principal do conto é um jovem dissoluto que gasta toda a sua fortuna em jogos de azar, bebidas e festas.

  4. Debochado(a): Alguém que zomba ou despreza as convenções sociais e morais, geralmente com um comportamento provocativo ou irreverente. Situação: Durante a festa, ele agia de maneira debochada, fazendo piadas picantes e flertando descaradamente com todas as mulheres presentes.

  5. Hedonista: Pessoa que busca o prazer como objetivo principal da vida, geralmente em detrimento de outros valores ou responsabilidades. Situação: O filme retrata um grupo de hedonistas que decidem viver juntos em uma mansão isolada, dedicando-se inteiramente aos prazeres da carne e desafiando as normas sociais.

< Na língua portuguesa, não há uma palavra derivada diretamente do termo latino “brius”. No entanto, existem algumas palavras e expressões relacionadas a comportamentos excessivos e prazeres carnais que podem ser usadas em contextos específicos (+18). Aqui estão alguns exemplos, com suas traduções, etimologias e situações:

1\ Libertinagem

  • Tradução: libertinagem, devassidão

  • Etimologia: originada do francês “libertinage”, que por sua vez deriva do latim “libertinus”, referente a um homem livre.

  • Situação (+18): Descreve um comportamento de indulgência excessiva em prazeres sexuais e desrespeito às normas morais e sociais.

2\ Devasso

  • Tradução: devasso, dissoluto

  • Etimologia: derivada do verbo “devassar”, que significa “descobrir” ou “violar”.

  • Situação (+18): Usada para descrever alguém que se entrega a prazeres carnais e leva uma vida imoral e desregrada.

3\ Lascívia

  • Tradução: lascívia, luxúria

  • Etimologia: originada do latim “lascivia”, que significa “luxúria” ou “libidinosidade”.

  • Situação (+18): Refere-se a um forte desejo sexual ou a um comportamento luxurioso e libidinoso.

4\ Promíscuo

  • Tradução: promíscuo

  • Etimologia: derivada do latim “promiscuus”, que significa “misturado” ou “indiscriminado”.

  • Situação (+18): Usada para descrever alguém que tem muitos parceiros sexuais ou que se envolve em relações sexuais casuais sem critérios.

5\ Voluptuoso

  • Tradução: voluptuoso, sensual

  • Etimologia: originada do latim “voluptuosus”, que significa “agradável” ou “prazeroso”.

  • Situação (+18): Descreve algo que é sensual, prazeroso ou que desperta o desejo sexual.

Embora essas palavras e expressões não sejam derivadas diretamente do termo latino “brius”, elas compartilham temáticas e conotações semelhantes, e podem ser usadas em contextos +18 para descrever comportamentos excessivos e indulgentes relacionados a prazeres carnais e desrespeito às normas morais e sociais.

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